Interpreting Research Findings Essay

What follows are my responses to the hypothetical students who responded to the topic: â€Å"The human mind is a very powerful tool of research. How does the mind use statistics, deductive logic, and inductive reasoning to interpret research findings? † Student #1. Since you provided the reference for your response, you may not understand the meaning of plagiarism. For example, the statement from Pinker’s article (p. 2): â€Å"In this conception, a computational system †¦ into existence† appears in your response, without quotation marks or a page reference. The addition of the parenthesized word â€Å"mind† does not make the excerpt yours. There are similar examples throughout your response. You might have had difficulty in reading a highly theoretical article: one that actually is from a scholarly journal (Pinker, 2005) and does not address the question of using â€Å"statistics, deductive logic, and inductive reasoning to interpret research findings†. Despite adding these phrases to statements from Pinker (paragraphs 2 and 3), you did not answer the question. Student #2. Your first three sentences, though interesting, aren’t related to the question. Note too that conclusions based on using the scientific method are not â€Å"right answers/outcomes. † The closest one can come to a â€Å"right answer† requires doing an experiment and then using inferential statistics to conclude that the probability of finding a result such as yours by chance is so low (e. g. , < . 05 or . 01) that it’s reasonable to conclude your experimental manipulation caused your results (Levin, 1999). Almost your entire response is related to descriptive statistics, only one part of the question. Your quote about deductive logic (the only route to certainty) does not explain how it is used, and your quote about inductive reasoning is not, in itself, a complete explanation of how such reasoning is used. Student #3. Your response was very good. Note that it isn’t possible to free one’s â€Å"mind of bias,† which is why methods are used to prevent human biases from influencing the results, as in the classic double-blind experiment, where neither participants nor researchers know who is receiving the placebo and who is receiving the medication (Levin, 1999). Also, your son’s conclusion was valid – a conclusion is valid if it must be true if the premise is true. He was incorrect because his premise was incorrect (typical of a bright three-year-old). Also, your discussion of inductive reasoning was weak – try thinking in terms of â€Å"inferential statistics. † As an aside, there were some violations of APA rules regarding citations and references. Student #4. Unfortunately, your response does not begin to address the question. Also, in answering a question you weren’t asked, you reached conclusions that have been disconfirmed in previous research. For example, there’s a strong relationship between the behavior of peers and a teenager’s use of nicotine, alcohol, marijuana, etc. , but not a relationship between parent and child use of these substances (reviewed in Harris, 1995). It’s true that â€Å"educational and prevention programs† have not been â€Å"cost effective,† but there’s no evidence that such programs are effective at all, i. e. , that they influence teenage-smoking. Before you reach a conclusion on the â€Å"something† you will study, you need to read the relevant literature on previous research. Student #5. In a response as brief as yours, the first two sentences should have been related to answering the question. I also have no idea of what your answer means: â€Å"to form somewhat of an ‘argument’ that helps to interpret research findings. † In discussing deductive reasoning, you needed to explain that incorrect premises can result in valid but incorrect conclusions and that factually correct premises can result in incorrect conclusions if the hypothesized conclusions are invalid (e. g. , in the classic example, knowing that â€Å"all men are mortal and that Socrates was mortal† does not imply that â€Å"Socrates was a man†). You also did not explain how statistics and inductive reasoning are used. Student #6. First, you did not provide any source(s). Had you used a book on statistics and design, e. g. , Levin, 1999, you would have avoided some errors, described below. Your examples of descriptive statistics are accurate, but your explanation of inferential statistics is not. A sample is used to generalize about a population, not about a larger sample. Also, if â€Å"blue† were the favorite color of 80 people in a sample of 100, you could not conclude (or â€Å"speculate†) that if you sample 1000 people, blue would be the favorite color of 800. You could conclude, for example, that if you repeatedly (infinitely) sampled 100 people from the same population, the probability of failing to find that a majority favor â€Å"blue† is known and small (e. g. , . 05 or . 01). It may be important to understand correlational research, but the question was to explain how particular tools were used to interpret research findings. One tool, deductive logic, does not, as you stated, â€Å"indicate that a series of statements are facts. † You also needed to use quotation marks in your statement from Kerlinger, 1986, â€Å"Hypotheses are declarative †¦ more variables† and the full Kerlinger reference should have been provided (you should not have included references you had not cited). Finally, your conclusion regarding your dissertation suggests you do not understand how the three research tools noted in the question are used, e. g. , do you intend to use statistics only in your literature review? References Harris, J. R. (1995). Where is the child’s environment? A group socialization theory of development. Psychological Review, 102, 458-490. Levin, I. P. (1999). Relating statistics and experimental design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Pinker, S. (2005). So how does the mind work? Mind & Language, 20, 1-24.

Customer Service Essay

Handout In this Session, you have learned about: The principles, policies and procedures of your organisation How your organisation communicates its principles to employees Your organisation’s policies and codes of practice Consultations on changes to principles, policies and procedures Issues of public concern relating to your industry and organisation. Principles, policies and procedures Principles are the foundation of a system of beliefs within an organisation. Principles are the philosophy of the organisation, illustrating how the organisation ‘thinks’. A policy is a definite course of action adopted by an organisation, which guides employees and helps them put principles into practice. Customer service policies are similar in many organisations, but some may be tailored to fit your organisation’s specific principles. A procedure is a series of steps to be followed to correctly answer the telephone, deal with complaints, give refunds etc. Organisations tend to have their own specific procedures. Communicating principles to employees An organisation may communicate its principles to employees in the following ways: The recruitment process Reading material Group discussions Appraisals and feedback Improving team performance Principles may be worked into the recruitment process. Interviewees asked about the organisation’s principles. Organisation handbook and vision statement include principles. This may be the first thing new recruits learn about the organisation. Printing out principles and posting them in the office ensures they feature in every employee’s day. Principles could be printed on commonly used items. Hearing principles read out is more effective for some. Managers and team leaders remind employees of principles. Discussion of whether an employee adheres to principles may be part of a formal review. Company awards are used to publicise principles. Company away-days and team-building exercises are opportunities to remind employees of principles. Team-building tasks could be centred on principles. Policies and codes of practice A code of practice is a set of written rules or standards outlining the responsibilities of, or proper practices for, an employee or organisation. An industry-wide code of practice is often defined by a trade association or professional body. Policies tend to be written by an organisation and based on an industry-wide code of practice. Your organisation might make you aware of its policies or code of practice by: Publishing the code of practice/policies on their website or the intranet Emailing updates to the code of practice and policies to all employees Including the code of practice and policies in the organisation handbook Basing appraisals or feedback systems around policies / code of practice Indicating the trade association/professional body who wrote the code of practice. Consultations on change If you are consulted on changes, your opinion is considered by those making the decision. Ways to consult employees on changes to principles, policies and procedures include: Small group meetings (face-to-face or via a video conference) Questionnaire Discussion with line manager/team leader Intranet bulletins or a FAQ page Email Team bulletins Monthly newsletter Letter A trade union/employee representative or staff council. How you are consulted depends on the size and structure of your organisation, employee work practices and the information being communicated. If your organisation has 50+ employees, you have the right to request an Information and Consultation arrangement. Issues of public concern Issues of public concern relating to your industry or organisation could include: Product recall and customer safety – is your product/service safe and reliable? Confidentiality – do you store customer information securely? Accessibility – is it easy to contact your organisation/use your services? Quality – is product/service equal to competitors? Responsiveness – how quickly will you respond to a customer and resolve problems? Value customers – do you value your customers and treat them appropriately? Finances – are accounts transparent and investments ethical? Wider concerns – public health, economy, environment, exploitation of workers etc. Your organisation may deal with issues of public concern by: Establishing stringent testing and health and safety processes Ensuring varied and easily accessed means of communicating with the organisation Investing in public relations to communicate effectively with the public Establishing clear customer service policies, making them available to the public and ensuring that staff adhere to these policies Publishing the organisation’s accounts Publishing a code of practice relating to the organisation’s economic, ethical, environmental responsibilities etc.

Substance abuse term Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Substance abuse term - Essay Example It is not clear why some people develop alcohol use problems and others do not, although there is a strong genetic link. Initially, alcohol is often used to soothe pain or hide insecurities. Over time, abuse and dependence can develop. Many people often fail to understand the difference between alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence. Alcohol abuse occurs when you repeatedly drink alcohol even though it causes significant problems in your life. Abuse disrupts your relationships, causes you to miss work (often due to hangovers), and neglect personal and work obligations. It can lead to legal problems, such as being arrested for disorderly conduct or drinking while driving. You don't have to drink daily or drink large amounts of alcohol to have an abuse problem. Whereas if alcohol abuse continues, it can lead to dependence - a physical and emotional addiction to alcohol. You may not be able to quit drinking on your own, even when you want to. With dependence, you feel compelled to drink, and it dominates your life. You may plan your activities around alcohol and may drink secretly or hide the amount that you drink. Over time, it will take larger amounts of alcohol before you feel its effects. You may get irritable, start to vomit, sweat and shake when you are unable to drink or try to quit on your own. Alcohol Alcohol abuse can be present if these symptoms exist: One of the early signs of an alcohol problem is having blackouts-periods of time where you were awake but do not remember what occurred while you were drinking. For example, you are injured while drinking but don't remember how it happened. Having unexplained injuries related to alcohol use or continue to drink despite the problems it causes. The person may also become physically aggressive when intoxicated. Many people who abuse alcohol deny they have a problem and consider themselves "social drinkers" because they do not drink every day. Alcohol abuse can develop in a short time or gradually over your lifetime. In the beginning, your drinking may not appear to be any different from the way other people drink. Some people drink only occasionally but drink a lot (binge drinkers), which can lead to alcohol abuse. Over time, your drinking may become a way for you to feel normal or to cope with life's problems. There are certain risk factors which increase the chance of alcohol abuse. Having a family history - this includes a genetic link - and exposure to alcohol at a place where the person grows up. Using alcohol at an early age proves to be dangerous because the earlier the exposure, the higher the risk of developing alcohol use problems as an adult. Using or abusing other substances such as nicotine, illegal drugs, or prescription medications may also increase abuse of alcohol. Mental Illness - Bipolar Disorder Bipolar Disorder is a mental illness in which a person's mood alternates between extreme mania and depression. Bipolar disorder is also called manic-depressive illness. When manic, people with bipolar disorder feel intensely elated, self-important, energetic, and irritable.

Supply Change Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Supply Change Management - Essay Example At the heart of supply chain is information; such that its efficiency and effectiveness depends on a company’s ability to create, process, and communicate information from both ends of the chain ensuring that the right things get to the right places, at the right time.2 However, information can often be distorted, with fluctuations increasing as the supply chain moves from customers, ordering products and services, to manufacturers and suppliers of raw materials, compromising a company’s ability to manage information.3 In this respect, the Internet, as an enabling technology with the ability to automate the supply chain, integrate business activities, supply real-time data, and reduce costs presents a powerful resource to improve SCM. One of the biggest challenges companies are facing insofar as SCM initiatives are concerned is streamlining the supply chain to reduce cycle time without having to maintain high inventory levels. On one hand, these goals can often be conflicting such it will be difficult to provide on-time delivery of products without maintaining high inventory levels; while on the other hand, such operations can be difficult to maintain given high holding costs, warehouse and production-line storage costs, and insurance costs among others.4 In order to resolve this, companies have traditionally resorted to forecasting customer demand and matching inventory levels to these forecasts, as much as possible. However, given the uncertainties and fluctuations in the supply chain, this can often lead to inefficient operations and customer dissatisfaction. In this respect, Internet-enabled SCM strategies, by automating the supply chain and linking the supply chain activities presents an effective and effici ent way to reduce cycle times, reduce inventory levels, and reduce costs. Looking at the example of Dell, and its Command and Control Model, one can illustrate how an

The book A Beautiful Mind, by Sylvia Nasar Literature review

The book A Beautiful Mind, by Sylvia Nasar - Literature review Example (The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2008). John F. Nash is one of the three co-recipients of the 1994 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science as a young faculty member in the MIT (Massachusetts Institute of technology) mathematics department. He came to MIT in 1951 as an instructor in mathematics. He became an assistant professor in 1953 and was promoted to associate professor in 1957. Game theory is not his only achievement in economics. He shared the 1994 Nobel prize with two other pioneers in game theory, John C. Harsanyi of the University of California at Berkeley and Reinhard Selten of the University of Bonn in Germany. (News Office, 1994) A Beautiful Mind is a book about a winning mathematician John Forbes Nash, Jr. and the staggering truth of his illness. Sylvia Nasar, the author of this best-selling biography, published the book in 1999, which later became a best-seller. It is a detailed account of John Nash who was diagnosed by his psychiatrist as having schizophrenia while being robbed of his wonderful career as a mathematician momentarily. The book, later inspired to be in the movie, won the 1998 National Book Critics Circle. The biography was quite dramatic in nature as the author relived the life of a genius whose career was hampered by a debilitating illness. Nash believed that messages are being sent to him through newspapers or media. Like any other suffering from such illness, his personal and career life was intertwined with interrupted delusions and eventually his life disintegrate. After thirty years of devastating mental illness, Nash recovered and gained him the Nobel Prize in 1994 for his contribution in Economics. His 26-page Ph.D. thesis, "Non-Cooperative Games", written at Princeton, while he was still in his early 20s, eventually won him a Nobel Prize, but only after his career was interrupted by a 30-year stint with paranoid schizophrenia. From his lonely childhood in West Virginia to his college years at  Princeton University, John Forbes Nash, Jr. encountered Albert Einstein, John von Neumann, and a host of other mathematical greats.  

Innovation and Knowledge Transfer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Innovation and Knowledge Transfer - Assignment Example In regard to this, a critical evaluation of how certain organisations drive innovation to maintain competitive advantage will be explored. This report will evaluate innovation within Starbucks Corporation, the leading specialty coffee seller in the world. The author will examine how the corporation took on the innovation challenge by evaluating what Starbucks does, who does it, how well the personnel manage innovation, what the process of innovation involves and how it is shared across parts of the corporation. This will be examined against certain concepts and frameworks established by researchers in this field to provide a sound critical analysis. The report to be conducted will encompass a study that seeks to establish the role of innovation in enhancing the competitive advantage of Starbucks Corporation. In achieving this, the paper will seek to identify the potential benefits accrued from adoption of innovation and the threats facing innovation in such firms. Tidd and Bessant (2009) define innovation as â€Å"the process of turning opportunity into new ideas and putting these into widely used practice†. According to Trott (2008, p. 15), innovation involves managing all activities that are necessary to the process of creating ideas, technology development, developing and marketing of a novel or improved product or services. Thus, innovation does not just stop with coming up with a new idea, or inventing something, nor creating new market niches. It is a process that takes into account all these factors and integrates them. The challenge in innovation lies in the process it involves. The process revolves essentially around methods of searching for triggers in the internal and external environment for innovation, selecting viable ideas to invest in, implementation and sustaining the innovation into the organization’s policies and structures (Nelson and Winter, 1982, p. 143; Tidd and Bessant, 2009). Tidd and Bessant

Understanding domestic violence Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Understanding domestic violence - Research Paper Example Thus, understanding domestic violence within the larger context of socio-psychological issues and social determinants of violent behavior becomes hugely critical. It is especially pertinent within spousal relationships. Social determinants and women who are less educated and financially dependent on their male partner or husband are more vulnerable to domestic violence. Social determinants of aggressive behavior, resulting in violence have emerged as serious issues as they adversely impact the welfare of family and society. Violent behavior is not normal and needs to be rationalized against the context and situations so that it can be addressed adequately. The structural determinants of changing social structure are main proponents of violence within society as they have created huge socio-economic and class disparity (Gilligan). Indeed, changing dynamics of society have brought forth plethora of social issues and problems like rising unemployment, lack of access to housing and medical facilities due to lack of financial resources etc. The poverty therefore, constitutes significantly to the increasing incident of domestic violence, reflecting the frustrations and inability of individuals to cope with their lives’ situations. Violence against women occurs in most society but the decline in domestic violence could be contributed to the increased wages of women and their rising social status that gives them more choices to make decisions (Aizer). She emphasizes that violence against women is more common in families and relationship where women lack financial independence. Pease and Rees (39) claim that refugee women and immigrant population face higher domestic abuse due to traditional masculine identity across races, settlement challenges and fear of reporting. Refugee families undergo language barrier and feel isolated with few opportunities of gainful employment that considerably compounds their insecurities and frustrations resulting in domestic

The Macro and Micro-Marketing of Counterfeit Goods Essay

The Macro and Micro-Marketing of Counterfeit Goods - Essay Example The act of branding can be traced back to the early 1800s when cowboys would brand their cattle before driving them across the central plains of the United States (Rozin 2002). In order to identify which cattle belonged to each ranch, a unique symbol was permanently burned onto the cow. These symbols, in addition to serving as a means of identification, provided a set of traditions and a social identity for the Cowboys. Today, companies use brands to distinguish themselves from their competition and to communicate unique qualities of their products (Aaker and Keller 1990; Low and Fullerton 1994). Once a brand is established, the brand name itself is thought to add value to the product in the minds of consumers. This added value is referred to as brand equity (Aaker 1991). Companies and designers often employ marketing strategies that capitalize on their brand equity and place a greater value on the shapes and labels of their products than the material from which they are made. Such companies provide buyers with what is conventionally called elite brands, defined by Silverstein and Fiske (2003) as those brands that possess higher levels of quality, taste and aspiration than other brands in the product category. These products are often justifiably priced higher than other brands in order to make their brand seem exclusive and more prestigious. For example, elite designers are able to transform a 10-pound t-shirt into a $200 sought after treasure (Chatpaiboon 2004). Recently, Hermes reported that customers were placed on a two-year waiting list for their most popular Birkin bag, which retails for $6000 (Branch 2004). On eBay, women engaged in bidding wars over a blue Birkin bag for which the winner ultimately paid over $13,000 (Rose 2003).

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 70

Assignment Example It is not true that cabbage is cheaply made and is of low quality. Red wine and beef steak are complimentary goods. The goods complement each other. A complementary good is one whose cross elasticity of demand is negative. That is, the demand of a complementary good will increase if the price of another good decreases. Similarly, the demand of a complementary good falls when the price of another good is increased. As such, because red wine and beef steak are complimentary goods (are consumed together), an increase in the price of red wine will discourage people from buying beef steak and thus a fall in demand for beef steak. Red wine has a negative cross elasticity of demand with respect to beef steak. The sales of generic frozen orange juice soared during recession because it is an inferior good. Inferior goods are those that provide an alternative for consumers to reducing their expenditure during harsh economic times. The demand for inferior goods soars with a decrease in the level of disposable income. On the other hand, the sales of freshly squeezed orange juice declined because it is a normal good. The demand for normal goods falls with a fall in income level. As such, during 2007/2008 recession, people turned to generic frozen orange juice to cut their expenditure and thus high sales recorded. On the other hand, the number of people buying freshly squeezed orange juice declined as their disposable income fell. At point A, change in price produces equal change in quantity demanded and hence elastic. At point B, the demand is probably inelastic because a change in price yields less percentage change in quantity demanded. The firm’s products have elastic demand. For goods with elastic demand, a small change in price will cause a big change in quantity demanded. Therefore, every time the firm increased the price, it Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 185 Assignment Example Joycelyn’s objective of career development has been key to her high performance and provision of a worker friendly environment has enabled her to achieve a lot in her career (Mondy, Noe, & Gowan, 2005). Joycelyn has no longer taken human resource as a an administrative duty but as a responsibility to ensure that workers feel that their place of work as the right place to spend time due to the conditions that are provided by the employer. Worker motivation is a major driver to any institution that would want to get the maximum of the employees’ capability. A motivated worker has all his/her welfare well taken care of and it trickles down to the human resource to ensure that they motivate workers by providing them with essential services such as schools for their children, insurance covers etc and rewarding them fairly for the work they have done (Mondy, Noe, & Gowan, 2005). Madam Joycelyn success has come as a result of combination of various factors the work together and is geared towards the workers

Microelectronic Pill Essay Example for Free

Microelectronic Pill Essay 1: ABSTRACT The invention of transistor enabled the first use of radiometry capsules, which used simple circuits for the internal study of the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract. They couldnt be used as they could transmit only from a single channel and also due to the size of the components. They also suffered from poor reliability, low sensitivity and short lifetimes of the devices. This led to the application of single-channel telemetry capsules for the detection of disease and abnormalities in the GI tract where restricted area prevented the use of traditional endoscopy. They were later modified as they had the disadvantage of using laboratory type sensors such as the glass pH electrodes, resistance thermometers, etc. They were also of very large size. The later modification is similar to the above instrument but is smaller in size due to the application of existing semiconductor fabrication technologies. These technologies led to the formation of MICROELECTRONIC PILL. Microelectronic pill is basically a multichannel sensor used for remote biomedical measurements using micro technology. This is used for the real-time measurement parameters such as temperature, pH, conductivity and dissolved oxygen. The sensors are fabricated using electron beam and photolithographic pattern integration and were controlled by an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). 2: INTRODUCTION When Microelectronic pill is swallowed, then it will travel through the Gastro Intestinal Tract simultaneously perform multi parameter in situ physiological analysis After completing its mission it will come out of the body by normal bowel movement The pill is 16mm in diameter 55mm long weighing around 5 gram It records parameters like temperature, pH, Conductivity, Dissolved Oxygen in real time. It measures the body core temperature. Also compensates with the temperature induced signal changes in other sensors. It also identifies local changes associated with TISSUE INFLAMMATION ULCERS. 3:TECHNOLOGY USED IN MICROELECTRONIC PILL ION-SELECTIVE FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR(ISFET) The ISFET measures pH. It can reveal pathological conditions associated with abnormal pH levels These abnormalities include : Pancreatic disease Hypertension Inflammatory bowel disease The activity of fermenting bacteria The level of acid excretion Reflux of oesophagus Effect of GI specific drugs on target organs. The pair of direct contact Gold electrodes measures conductivity, by measuring the contents of water salt absorption, bile secretion the breakdown of organic components into charged colloids etc. in the GI tract. Since the gold has best conductivity among all the elements, Therefore it gives true value of conductivity as measured. Â  DIRECT CONTACT GOLD ELECTRODE The three electrode electrochemical cell detects the level of dissolved oxygen in solution. It measures the oxygen gradient from the proximal to the distal GI Tract It investigates : Growth of aerobic or bacterial infection Formation of radicals causing cellular injury pathophysiological conditions like inflammation Gastric ulceration. It develops generation enzymes linked with amperometric biosensors. ASIC The ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) is the control unit that connects together other components of the micro system. It contains an analogue signal –conditioning module operating the sensors, 10-bit analogue to digital (ADC) digital to analogue (DAC) converters, digital data processing module The temperature circuitry bias the diode at constant current so that change in temperature reflects a corresponding change in in diode voltage. The pH ISFET sensor is biased as a simple source at constant current with the source voltage changing with threshold voltage pH. The conductivity circuit operates at D.C. It measures the resistance across the electrode pair as an inverse function of solution conductivity. An incorporated potentiostat circuit operates the O 2 sensor with a 10 bit DAC controlling the working electrode potential w.r.t the reference Analogue signals are sequenced through a multiplexer before being digitized by ADC. ASIC sensors consume 5.3 mW power corresponding to 1.7 mA of current. CONTROL CHIP Size of transmitter = 8 ? 5 ? 3 mm Modulation Scheme = Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Data Transfer Rate = 1 kbps Frequency = 40.01 MHz at 20 Â °C Bandwidth of the signal generated 10 KHz It consumes 6.8 mW power at 2.2 mA of current. RADIO TRANSMITTOR 4:Experimental The electronic pill comprise a biocompatible capsule, which consists of a chemically resistant polyether-terketone (PEEK) coating, the four microfabricated sensors, the ASIC control chip and a discrete component radio transmitter (Fig. 1). The unit I powered by two SR44 Ag2O batteries (3.1 V), which provides an operating time of 35 hours at the rated power consumption of 15 mW. The sensors were fabricated on two separate 55 mm2 silicon chips located at the front end of the capsule. The temperature sensor is embedded in the substrate, whereas the conductivity sensor is directly exposed to the surroundings. The pH and oxygen sensors were enclosed in two separate 8 nL electrolyte chambers containing a 0.1M KOH solution retained in a 0.2 % calcium alginate gel. The electrolyte maintains a stable potential of the integrated Ag/AgCl reference electrodes used by the two sensors. The oxygen and pH sensor are covered by a 12 ?m thick film of teflon and nafion respectively, and protected by a 15 ?m thick dialysis membrane of polycarbonate. The signals were conditioned by the ASIC and then transmitted to a local receiver (base station) at 40.01 MHz prior to data acquisition on a PC. The applied simplex communication link, based on a direct sequence spread spectrum communication system, can handle data from several pills at the same time. 4: APPLICATION It is used in the medical diagnosis of gestro-intestial tract disease. 5: CONCLUSION: The electronic pill will be further miniaturised for human ingestion by the incorporation of the transmitter on silicon and a reduction in power consumption by the implementation of a standby modus and serial bitstream data compression. The integration of radiation sensors and the application of indirect imaging technologies such as ultrasound and impedance tomography will improve the detection of tissue abnormalities and radiology treatment associated with cancer and chronic inflammation. 6: REFERENCES: [1] www.wikipedia.com [2] www.seminar-only.com [3] Cane, C., I. Gracia, and A. Merlos, Microelectronics Journal.

Symbolism And Narrative Voice

Symbolism And Narrative Voice This extended essay aims to challenge the categorization of the female protagonists in Alice Walkers The Color Purple and Nawal El Saadawis Woman at Point Zero as repressed by examining the question How is symbolism and narrative voice used by the authors to demonstrate each womans struggle with marginalization? The scope of this essay encompasses two works which endeavor to empower women as it depicts their overcoming society ´s norms. The use symbolism and narrative voice by Walker and El Saadawi to portray Celie and Firdaus ´ experiences drew me to this particular work. This paper explores Walker and El Saadawi ´s use of these literary devices to cast the actual complexity and defiance of their protagonists ´ behavior, which overrides generalized nature of marginalization. Both books are an example of the influence caused by female ´s struggle with chauvinism in two very different cultures showing it is still a global problem as it is being referenced in two literary pie ces from distinct times. The essay counts with two main sections, each emphasized in the specific literary device which is aimed to be explored. It acknowledges the powerful effect of the narrative voices and the symbolism on the reader, on how these two devices are intentionally introduced by the authors to strengthen up the intensity of the protagonists life situation and by complementing each other they manage to give the character the development it deserves. Word Count: 230 Table of Contents Abstract 2 1. Introduction.. 4 2. Symbolismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ 5 3. Narrative Voiceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..10 4. Conclusion..16 Bibliography17 1. Introduction Women ´s struggle to overcome oppression has become a major issue over the last 50 years. The subjugation of women has not been an eternal feature of the human society, but it became a product of the development of class society. This struggle is something that two authors have tried to demonstrate, proving there is not only one point of view about it. Still women have fought for their importance and this gets to be evidenced through literary devices of symbolism and narrative voices in The Color Purple published in 1982 by Alice Walker, American writer and Woman at Point Zero published in 1975 by Nawal El Saadawi, Egyptian feminist. Books are a very efficient method to express an idea or a thought. Who does not have the ability to convey their feelings verbally has the ability to do so in writing, and regardless of the background context of the story (whether based on fact or fiction), by presenting these ideals in a written form, the necessary ingredients will be added to make the writing part of literature, that is why the literary features are as important and relevant as the same thread of the plot. The feminist genre has become a popular form of literature this is why the following question How is symbolism and narrative voice used by the authors to demonstrate each womans struggle with marginalization in The Color Purple and Woman at Point Zero? is going to be answered. It is important to generate a comparison between these two novels as they have been both written by female authors as stated before and they show the overcome of chauvinism by the main characters, writing about a subjective look into the es sential underdevelopment of marginalized characters. Celie from The Color Purple and Firdaus from Woman at Point Zero, are part of these characters, both led by different religions and political borders but with a very similar struggle. 2. Symbolism The use of symbolism throughout both novels is constantly present. Symbols have as a purpose to communicate a meaning. It is inside any literary piece to generate a deeper meaning in the stories [  [1]  ], generally, the symbols are highlighted through the book to support the literary theme, just as shown in The Color Purple and Woman at Point Zero, where symbols play an important role in the overcoming of the marginalization suffered by the main characters. To highlight in The Color Purple we find sisterhood, the relationship between Celie and her beloved sister Nettie, the one person who is constantly cheering Celie up and motivating her to keep on moving forward. The bond that represents their relationship is quilting. It is directly linked with the theme of sisterhood. Nettie and Celie used to spend their free time (their free time meant the time none of them were serving for their dad or generally doing household work) together laughing and sewing old pieces of curtains in order to make one single quilt. The idea of sewing up different pieces and making them part of one same whole, represents unity. The union between this two sisters, were leaning on each other formed a particular engine, especially used by Celie, to continue on with her life. The color purple itself is the most evident symbol in the book. Purple may have many meanings and they all fit into the story of the book. Every different meaning ties up the thread of the story and guides the reader through the characters struggle showing them all the process until they overcome chauvinism. In the first place, Shug Avery is the person who points out the concept of the color purple to Celie [  [2]  ]. Shug, tells Celie how God does small things for people, like creating the color purple just to make them happy and give them pleasure in their lives, he wants people to notice the beauty of his own creations, to love his creations. As Celie learns to love life throughout her whole development in the fight to reach her happiness, she learns to love her inner self, well just as the color purple is a very small but important creation she finally recognizes the beauty she carries with her and decorates her bedroom in her own home with the color purple. The bruises on Celie ´s beaten face throughout her pitiful life, the pain she has gone throughout her life has been showing off through the bruises in her face as she was being beaten up by her father and husband. Still all these bruises never stopped her from achieving her independence, the bruises just made her stronger. [  [3]  ] Last, the color purple is not as common as other colors; the actual color was discovered with the secretion produced by some mollusk found around the cities of Tyre. By being so rare and hard to find, it became a symbol of royalty because only the very wealthy people could afford it[  [4]  ]. In relationship to the book, Celie associates the color purple and longs for a purple dress[  [5]  ], well wearing it would make her feel more confident but overall, more powerful. The same color suffers en evolution as the development of Celie ´s struggle is being exceeded. At the beginning, Celie did not consider herself to be treated as royalty, though at the end, as she feels more confident, she decides that purple should now be the color that represents her. Clothes are a major symbol through the book. Pants, are another important factor. In the 1930 ´s, pants were not common amongst women; they were only used by men while women were only allowed to use fancy dresses or long skirts. This is why pants are the greatest symbol of women ´s liberation from the confines of a dress. When Celie decides not only to wear them, but to start her own business on them, she becomes freed from gender stereotypes. Therefore they represent liberation from patriarchy and sexism, as well as economic independence, where women show they can also have success without the help of men. Trousers are the main symbol in relationship to the overcome of struggle, they are the last symbol shown in the book letting the audience know how this change is Celie ´s last and ultimate achievement. The letters to God are also important, as the tale is being told primarily through Celie ´s own letters. Due to her isolation and despair, she initially addresses these letters to God. God is at first a confidant. Throughout the story, Celie by discovering the letters from Nettie that Mr__ had hidden from her: Now that I know Albert hiding Nettie ´s letters, I know exactly where they is.[  [6]  ]. This helps her regain confidence and hope, by feeling she does have someone else to lean on and she was never forgotten making her change the recipient of her letters to Nettie. After the whole story has concluded, the last letter written from Celie is once again addressed to God, the starts, the sky and every other one of his creations thanking him for all her achievements, showing the last phase of her struggle, the recovery.[  [7]  ] In Woman at Point Zero, Firdaus, a young woman waiting to be executed in an Egyptian prison, narrates the events and relationships that led her to become a prostitute and murder her pimp. El Saadawis perspective frames the story as she visits Firdaus in jail and feels overwhelmed by her strength. Money is one of the books greatest symbols as it creates a game between the parallelism of its own value and Firdaus; well a man does not know a woman ´s value. She is the one who determines her value. [  [8]  ] Firdaus was told by Sharifa that the higher you price yourself, the more he will realize what you are really worth, and be prepared to pay with the means at his disposal. And if he has no means, he will steak from someone else to give what you demand.[  [9]  ] On her own, she learns that her body has a monetary value to men, and gets advantage of the fact that pleasure was something men desired, meaning that for the first time, men depended on her. The more she built and strengthened her self-esteem, the more confident she felt, and the more confident she felt, the more she would charge and higher the price of her service. In fact the real symbol comes to be  ´price ´ as it is what really categorizes something or someone ´s value. Still the part of her narration with more symbolism is when Firdaus tears up the money and demonstrates money has no power over her anymore. The prince will then declare her a total princess, outside the reach of money. Being a prostitute means developing a job, and money is its remuneration but Firdaus wants more than just being paid for her job, she wants to be recognized as a strong woman. Firdaus ´s school certificates are also a symbol during her overcome. Books have accompanied her since she childhood; her first encounter with books was thanks to her uncle as he secretly taught her how to read. He was the first person who initially shows interest in the young Firdaus and tries to guide her towards a better future. Reading helped her realize that there is more than just her small and poor village. Later on, as she moves with her uncle she starts school and achieves not only her school certificate but gets much academic recognition. Being a scholar made her self-esteem rise, she was proud of what she had achieved by herself with no one elses intervention, I have a secondary school certificate, and I want to work [  [10]  ] she claimed. She knew her certificates would mean her departure to success. Finally we can find one of the biggest symbols throughout the book; eyes. Eyes are constantly mentioned and highlighted in the story. As Firdaus ´s story starts to develop, she emphasizes in the fact that eyes always seemed to gaze upon her. At the beginning, the images of the eye could be interpreted as something trivial, physical. But, as she mentions the eye that always looks upon her, and the story keeps progressing and she becomes more mature to at least distinguish from what is right and what is wrong, the image of the eye starts to refer as the conscience that is constantly reminding her about her occupation. This brought also the meaning and interpretation of a new symbol feared by Firdaus, the feeling of someone watching over her. Another important point is the cultural relationship between eyes and the Muslim religion. Women are not to show their eyes to strangers, and it is prohibited for them to downright into the eyes of their husbands and fathers, they should lower their eyes in sign of respect and admiration. Women that are still into the orthodox tradition should stay under the hijab to observe from there the outer world. [  [11]  ][  [12]  ] The change the image of the eye suffers can be seen as the change in Firdaus ´s outlook in life. As she grows up and understands the rules of society, her outlook on life switches from optimistic to hopeless. Still, at the end they show themselves again as widely open and confident. Both books contain these symbols to enhance and intensify the real meaning of this whole struggle by these women who have learned how to fend for themselves. These authors may coincide in the use of similar symbols, but the way in which Celie and Firdaus overcome their obstacles is completely different considering the variety of situations that surround them. It is their cultural differences what protrude amongst both characters and derives the other factors. In order to successfully communicate to a wide audience, we must recognize the fact that things carry different symbolic meanings to different cultures. Economic independence for example, is crucial in both characters but the means of obtaining this independence is completely different due to the cultural and systemic possibilities given to both women. This economic independence is symbolized with the obtention of money through prostitution in Woman at Point Zero and with pants in The Color Purple. While Firdaus has to go throug h social humiliation and lack of self-respect, Celie goes through a low self-esteem and a more stigmatized oppression from men who do empower over her with more facility than what men managed to obtain from Firdaus as the story progresses. 3. Narrative Voice Narrative voice is the persona telling the story; the persona develops from the personality and attitude of the narrator, which are expressed by the narrator ´s choice of words and incidents. These in turn depend on the point of view of the story. The point of view goes hand by hand with the narrative voice; it is what makes emphasis in the personality of the character meaning that it would show the development of the character along the story. [  [13]  ] An interesting characteristic of The Color Purle, is the fact that the first person narrator will introduce the events in letter forms. As it has been mentioned before, the first half of the book is told completely from Celie ´s point of view as she addresses letters to God in some diary form to let God know about everything that surrounds her. As the book opens, Celie is clearly a victim; her narrative actually begins as a result of her victimization. Her father tells her to hide from everyone the secret about him raping her, telling anyone but God. This was the initial motor for Celie to confide God about her struggles. As she is being emotionally, psychologically and physically isolated, she is immerse in the idea that she has no one who cares about her, this is why she also leans on God. Celie ´s point of view gets to be interesting. Unlike her sister Nettie, she is an uneducated woman as she has been forced to quit school around the age of fourteen to attend her pregnancy, pregnant by her own father. Her lack of education is demonstrated with her shortcomings in grammar and spelling but this does not cover the fact that she is still telling a powerful story; She ast me bout the first one Whose it is? I say God ´s. I don ´t know no other man or what else to say. When I start to hurt and then my stomach is moving and then that little baby come out my pussy chewing on it fist you could have knock me over with a feather. [  [14]  ] The previous quote demonstrates a perfect example of Celie ´s lack of education mixed with the intense situation she had to go through. Both factors as they are combined generate a much bigger impact on the reader as he gets immerse in a story where there is not only an educational problem but a tragic narration driving the reader to think of how the same lack of education may have caused to damages to Celie as she has no other guide other than her own ignorance. As Celie discovers her sister Nettie never stopped writing to her, but it was Mr.___ who hid the letters from her, she changes on the recipient of her letters; still there is nothing artificial about her writing style. The reader can always identify a pervasive and enduring quality of honesty throughout her letters. When I told Shug Im writing to you instead of God she laugh. Nettie don ´t know these people, she say. Considering who I been writing to, this strike me funny [  [15]  ] writes Celie to Nettie. Celie gains confidence as she knows she does have someone watching over her and even though God is somehow left aside, he does not lose importance, Celie just gets overwhelmed by the fact that her new discovery would have seemed something impossible. The previous quote indicates her happiness, happiness achieved for the first time in a very long period of time. This evokes hope amongst the audience and reflects the characters emotion. From this event on, the book makes a certain turn and the reader will continue on knowing about her story but not throughout the letters addressed to God, but this time in the letters between Celie and Nettie. Nettie, however, is an educated woman, her grammar and spelling are correct and she discusses more complex topics in the letters. Still, it does not compare to how powerful Celie ´s story is. In Woman at Point Zero even though the first person narrator persists, the story is differently told. The narrative point of view is used to inform the reader of the political and socio-cultural context of the situation in which the protagonists find themselves, due to the fact that it is not only a story but it is based in a real life situation. The voices vary not from character to character but from character to psychiatrist, who represents the voice of the author. El Saadawi ´s narrator starts by fulfilling the role of a psychiatrist who introduces the story of Firdaus. As the psychiatrist, she is looking forward to portray the traditional oppression of women, in this particular case she works on the oppression embedded within the Islamic traditions as well as the lack of gender equality. Firdaus ´s story begins to be embedded in which we think is El Sadaawi ´s life. I felt somehow that my research was now in jeopardy. As a matter of fact, my whole life seemed to be threatened with failure. My self-confidence began to be badly shaken, and I went through difficult moments[  [16]  ] The quote not only lets the reader know about her situation but corroborates the fact that she was there just to compliance with her work as a psychiatrist. As Firdaus agrees to see her, she now becomes the listener, Firdaus becomes the narrator. The psychiatrist gets immersed in who is supposed to be her patient ´s story, a new twist occurs, and the person who seemed to be vulnerable despite her wealthy economical position and social class; she expresses love and admiration for Firdaus who opened her eyes: The power of truth, as savage, and as simple, and as awesome as death, yet as simple and as gentle as a child that has not yet learnt to lie.[  [17]  ] The psychiatrist writes this after hearing Firdaus ´s story and watching her be escorted towards her execution. As she feels light-headed, Firdaus has convinced her that what surrounds her is a lie and, lies must be destroyed, this leaves her within the dilemma of thinking whether if her whole life has been an illusion or pure and simple reality. She also realizes that Firdaus is not in prison because authorities fear she will kill again if released, but because they fear the truth that she now possesses. Killing a pimp is not her real crime, exposing the hypocrisy and powerlessness of the leaders and princes she so despises, is. She now stops playing the role of the psychiatrist, and changes to play the role herself as a human being. Firdaus ´s story is purely more complex. Her story arises from silence, from her initial refusal to speak. This presence of the voice, which is meant to be experienced as the voice of a real person rather than the one of a fictional character, is the mark of a desire not to be silenced or defeated, a desire to impose oneself on an institution of power, from the position of the marginal. Firdaus was able to discover how Men impose deception on women and punish them for being deceived, force them down to the lowest level and punish them for falling so low, bind them in marriage and then chastise them with menial service for life, or insults, or blows.[  [18]  ] Men ´s imposition over women was just being developed with the excuse of a culture and a religion, but that was not to be allowed anymore. Life taught her the significance of being a woman inside her society. Her eyes went wide open over the fact that it was no obligation for women to yield over men, but it was women ´s obligations to have the courage of standing up against them and stop that believe once and for all. She is constantly expressing these emotions with resentment, an outraged tone evoking compatibility between the reader and the character through imagery. In her outcry against men ´s dominance, she exposes the multiple forms of hypocrisy and control used to gain authority over women. She hated men who tried to give her advice, or told her that they wanted to rescue her from the life she was leading, she said they saw themselves in some kind of chivalrous role.[  [19]  ] Indeed, all those who supposedly rescue Firdaus, men and women alike, end up using her for their own purposes. Though her life made her look as a victim, her tone as she tells her story does not show either sorrow or gloom, but anger and bitter. As it pertains to both books, The Color Purple and Woman at Point Zero, narratives are expressed in two different forms, private letters as demonstrated with the first book and a traditional storytelling based on a real life event, still both done in first person narrative. The differences between the two main characters are protruded with the tone that both authors imply. Celie is never seen as anything else but a victim, even though she achieves her independence at the end of the story her image only changes from victim to surpass, while Firdaus despite the difficulties always knew who she was, pointed to where she was going and demonstrated it since the beginning of the story as she stated: I knew that women did not become heads of state, but I felt that I was not like other women. [  [20]  ] About the authors intentions, both embed their books with their life. Alice walker pretends to demonstrate not only the marginalized life of the characters she created but of black writers such as herself through the written word. The story itself is a representation of what Walker ´s ancestors went through in the eighteenth century.[  [21]  ] On the other hand, Nadal el Saadawi not only narrates a real life story but in the same book she connects it to her life and describes how she felt while living the moment. Here is where the relationship with both authors varies; Walker recreates what should have been the life of her family some years ago to feel close to her history while El Saadawi makes a direct connection and gets herself involved. Here, the cultural differences are not much of a factor influencing the authors to achieve their intentions, as narrative voices point out the outcry of two characters who aim for the same achievements. 4. Conclusion Both literary techniques complement each other to give the character the development it deserves. It is through the narrative voice and the first person that the character is expressed in its entirety to set free to a set of oppressed emotions in which the characters may find themselves immerse. Whether in writing as Celie did, or verbally as Firdaus, whose story was later on transferred to paper, the tranquility of both women is caused by the release of these feelings. With symbolism, the author looks to supplement those repressed emotions to give a deeper meaning to their struggle and give more validity to the achievements of these characters. Through these symbols the reader can be aware of the development of the characters as the story goes along, the more the symbol gets highlighted, the more important it is. The symbol is an essential element, which also integrates the background context of both, the author and characters to interpret the significance of they ´re development and demonstrate the author`s intention. Word Count: 3971

Gasoline Essay -- essays research papers

GASOLINE TOXIC COMPOUNDS AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT In the early 20th Century gasoline was being produced by oil companies using distillates from petroleum. Unfortunately, this was not enough energy to power the new atutomobiles that would soon be arriving. More chemicals, addetives and research had to be done. Around 1910 laws were passed that prohibited gasoline from being stored. Perhaps the car industries were growing so rapidly, it was then the government began to take note to regulate the use of gasoline for the protection of the environment. Lead and benzene are toxins found in gasoline that are confirmed to be regulated human carcinogens. Carcinogens have been tested also to induce cancer found in humans and animals. This paper will determine and discuss these two types of toxins identified in gasoline, the dangers of these toxins and how they affect the environment in which we live in. When gasoline is burned it releases a form of energy of hydrogen and carbon. This energy forms water and carbon dioxide. Carbon moxide may be formed as well if the compnents are not precise and complete. Gasoline is said to contain over 500 hydrocarbons. There are two types of hydrocarbons; saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Saturated hydrocarbons are somewhat stable found in leaded gasolines and burn a clean flame in the air. On the other hand, unsaturated hydrocarbons are unstable and tend to burn a dark smoky flame. Studies have proven lead poisoning can be obta... Gasoline Essay -- essays research papers GASOLINE TOXIC COMPOUNDS AND ADVERSE EFFECTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT In the early 20th Century gasoline was being produced by oil companies using distillates from petroleum. Unfortunately, this was not enough energy to power the new atutomobiles that would soon be arriving. More chemicals, addetives and research had to be done. Around 1910 laws were passed that prohibited gasoline from being stored. Perhaps the car industries were growing so rapidly, it was then the government began to take note to regulate the use of gasoline for the protection of the environment. Lead and benzene are toxins found in gasoline that are confirmed to be regulated human carcinogens. Carcinogens have been tested also to induce cancer found in humans and animals. This paper will determine and discuss these two types of toxins identified in gasoline, the dangers of these toxins and how they affect the environment in which we live in. When gasoline is burned it releases a form of energy of hydrogen and carbon. This energy forms water and carbon dioxide. Carbon moxide may be formed as well if the compnents are not precise and complete. Gasoline is said to contain over 500 hydrocarbons. There are two types of hydrocarbons; saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Saturated hydrocarbons are somewhat stable found in leaded gasolines and burn a clean flame in the air. On the other hand, unsaturated hydrocarbons are unstable and tend to burn a dark smoky flame. Studies have proven lead poisoning can be obta...

Databases :: essays research papers

databases The Many Faces of Databases Large databases can contain hundreds of interrelated files. Fortunately a database management system can shield users from the complex inner workings of the system, providing them with only the information and commands they need to get their jobs done. In fact, a well-designed database puts on different faces for different classes of users. Downsizing and Decentralizing The earliest file management programs could only do batch processing, which required users to accumulate transactions and feed them into computers in large batches. These batch systems weren't able to provide the kind of immediate feedback we expect today. Today disk drives, inexpensive memory, and sophisticated software have allowed interactive processing to replace batch processing for most applications. Users can now interact with data through terminals, viewing and changing values in real time. Batch processing is still used for printing periodic bills, invoices, and reports and for mak ing backup copies of data files. But for applications that demand immediacy, such as airline reservations, banking transactions, and the like, interactive, multiuser database systems have taken over. Until recently most databases were housed in mainframe computers. But for a growing number of organizations, the traditional centralized database on a mainframe system is no longer the norm. Some companies use a client/server approach: Database software in client desktop computers works with files stored in central server databases on mainframes, minicomputers, or desktop computers. Other companies use distributed databases that use data strewn out across networks on several different computers. From the user's point of view, the differences between these approaches may not be apparent. Tomorrow's Databases? Many computer scientists believe that the relational data model may be supplanted in the next decade by an object-oriented data model, and that most future databases will be object- oriented databases rather than relational databases. Instead of storing records in tables and hierarchies, object-oriented databases store software objects that contain procedures (or instructions) along with data. Object-oriented databases often are used in conjunction with object-oriented programming languages. Tomorrow's databases will be able to respond intelligently to commands and queries issued in natural human language. Rules of Thumb: Dealing with Databases A few common-sense rules when working with file managers or relational database management systems are: o Choose the right tool for the job. o Think about how you'll get the information out before you put it in. o Start with a plan, and be prepared to change it.

Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development Essay

Sigmund Freud, born in 1856 was an Austrian neurologist who would later go on to found the discipline of psychoanalysis. He is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and repression and his concept of the dynamic unconscious suggesting that it is our unconscious mind that determines how we as individuals behave, Freud also believed that the unconscious mind established sexual drives as the dominant motivation of human life. He considered the unconscious mind as being the source of mental energy which determined behaviour, basing his findings on the results of his use of hypnosis where he found that he was able to produce and remove symptoms of hysteria. There have been numerous approaches in the field of psychology that have put forward the belief that behaviour is directed by an individual’s goals but the idea behind a goal-directed unconscious is an original Freudian concept. The main underlying belief of this theory is that any individuals’ behaviour is the direct result of the influences that prior experiences have had on them where these influences have an even greater effect if they are from our childhood. Freud believed that our early experiences formed the solid foundations on which we would build the structure of our life and that the adult personality is indeed formed in childhood according to the situations, treatment and feelings experienced as a child. Freud defined the human psyche as comprising of three parts, the unconscious or sub-conscious containing material that we are unable to bring into our conscious awareness and therefore unknowable. The preconscious which consists of information that is not at the present moment in our conscious awareness but is stored in our memory and can if need be easily recalled to the conscious level; and the conscious part of our mind which is where all current and new incoming content is processed. Within these parts operate the Id, the Ego and the Super Ego that work together to create complex human behaviours. The Id is the only part of our personality that is present from birth and is entirely unconscious, seeking instant gratification and fulfilling instinctive human needs. The Id is governed by the pleasure principle desiring the fulfilment of all desires, needs and wants. If these are not immediately satisfied this results in a state of anxiety or tension. The Id serves of great importance early on in life, a child will cry as a  result of their Id if they are hungry or in discomfort and ensures that their needs are met. Later on in life it is not always realistic or indeed possible to immediately satisfy such needs, it would be morally and socially unacceptable for us to just help ourselves to other people’s things in order to satisfy our own needs and wants and so later in childhood our Ego comes in to play. The Ego is responsible for dealing with reality and acts to ensure that the impulses of the Id are satisfied in a way that is acceptable to the real world and functions in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious parts of our mind. The reality principle weighs up the pro’s and con’s of an action before deciding whether or not to act upon the impulse. Often the impulses of the Id can be satisfied but through delayed gratification with the Ego allowing the behaviour at an appropriate time and place. The Eg o is a part of the Id that has been somewhat modified and rounded by external factors in the environment in which we live. Freud originally used the word Ego to mean a sense of self but later revised it to represent a set of psychic functions such as judgement, control, intellectual functioning and memory. Finally we develop our Super Ego. The Super Ego is the part of our personality that holds our morals and ideals that we have acquired from our parents and environment and acts as a voice for right and wrong. As with the Ego it is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious parts of our mind. The Super Ego consists of two parts, the Ego ideal which sets out the rules and standards for good behaviour. Conformity to behaviours that are approved of by our parents and people in positions of authority give us feelings of pride and accomplishment. The second part of the Ego is the Conscience which holds information on all the things that are viewed as being bad by our parents and the society in which we live. Behaviours that are forbidden or at the very least frowned upon and fill us with feelings of guilt and remorse. The perfection principle of the Super Ego strives to suppress any unacceptable desires of the Id and to make our Ego act upon idealistic rather than realistic standards. One of Freud’s better known theories and also one of the most controversial is that of psycho-sexual development. He proposed that an instinctual libido is present in all of us from birth and develops in five stages. First is the oral stage which occurs from birth up until around the age of eighteen months. The main focus here being the  gratification and pleasures the infant receives through feeding. Children in this stage place objects into their mouths in order to orally explore their environment. At this young age the child is entirely dependent on their carers and thus develops a sense of trust and comfort in relation to those carers. This stage is dominated by the Id as at this point the Ego and Superego have not yet fully developed and all actions are based on the â€Å"Pleasure Principle†. The key experience for a child in the oral stage of development is weaning, allowing the child to become less dependent on their caretakers. Freud said that too much or too little gratification may lead to an oral fixation, which Freud claimed could result in them developing a passive, immature, manipulative personality. This fixation could present in an adult as issues with eating, smoking, nail biting and aggression. The second stage of psycho-sexual development is the anal stage taking place between around 18 months to three years old. Freud believed at this stage that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. Toilet training is the key experience here which brings into conflict the Id that demands immediate gratification and the Ego that demands delayed gratification. The resulting outcome of this conflict is heavily influenced by the parenting style that a child receives during toilet training. The ideal resolution of this conflict is a gradual adjustment whereby the child adjusts to moderate parental demands, learning the values of physical cleanliness and self control. Freud suggested that if parents over-emphasized toilet training or punished accidents then the child may develop what we term as an anally retentive personality, with the potential to become obsessively concerned with neatness and order. On the other hand if the parents were too lenient then the child may develop an anally expulsive and destructive personality whereby they are self-indulgent, messy and wasteful. Faeces and money are often linked in psychodynamic literature and according to Freudian theory; attitudes to money can reveal what the individual experienced during toilet training. The third stage of psycho-sexual development is the phallic stage taking place between the ages of three and six. During this time a child begins to gain awareness of its body and also the bodies of their parents and other  children, in particular genitalia. They begin to explore their genitals and learn the physical differences between male and female. During this stage boys experience what Freud termed as the Oedipus complex whereby the child wishes to remove his father in order to gain full attention of his mother’s affections. This urge to eliminate the father is controlled by what he termed as castration anxiety and so instead the child learns to imitate the father. Girls experience what Carl Jung in 1913 termed as the Electra complex where instead she wishes to remove the mother in order to gain full possession of her father. Freud however rejected this term as being psycho-analytically inaccurate believing that the reasoning behind the Oedipus complex applied only to male children and that it was wrong to share this analogy between the two sexes. He did however believe that girls experienced what he termed as penis envy and that initially the child experiences a lot of anger towards their mother for not sharing the same appendage as their father but in time they learn to identify with their mother in order to possess their father. Freud was very much influenced by the death of his father in 1896. In the three years following the death of his father, Freud became preoccupied with self-analysis where he realised that he had repressed feelings of anger and resentment against his father. He believed that as a small boy he had been in love with his mother and was jealous of his father. Freud based his theory of early sexual development on personal theory instead of exploring further using empirical methods. The fourth stage of psycho-sexual development is the latency stage taking place from around the age of six up until puberty. During this stage the child enters into a sexually dormant period, consolidating the habits of the previous three stages. The Ego and Superego take precedence over the Id due to the child’s defence mechanisms repressing its instinctual drives during the phallic stage. Now that gratification is delayed, the child is driven to derive pleasure from external activities such as friendships, education and hobbies. Any neuroses established during this fourth stage of psycho-sexual development may be due to the unresolved issues of the Oedipus complex or the Ego’s failure to focus on socially acceptable activities. The fifth and final stage of psycho-sexual development is the genital stage  that spans from puberty throughout the remainder of adult life. As with the phallic stage the genital stage is focussed upon genitalia but in this instance the sexuality is consensual and more often involving another adult in the form of a relationship rather than being solitary and infantile. This is due to the establishment of the Ego which shifts attention away from primary-drive gratification to secondary process thinking and to satisfy desire in a more symbolic and intellectual way through loving relationships, friendships and family. The genital stage is the time when a person is able to resolve any psycho-sexual childhood conflicts that they may have and allows psychological detachment and independence from their parents. In previous stages focus was placed solely on individual needs, now the welfare of others comes strongly into play and if all stages have been completed successfully then Freud believed that the individual should be a well-balanced and fully functioning person. Unfortunately it isn’t all that simple and the Id, the Ego and the Super Ego continuously come into conflict with one another. The Ego has to work to control the demands of the Id whilst at the same time having regard for the restrictions placed upon it by the Super Ego. At times these desires and constraints cause conflict that our Ego is unable to deal with resulting in anxiety and stress. Freud identified three types of anxiety, firstly neurotic anxiety which occurs through fear that we will lose control of the Id’s urges and the resulting punishment for inappropriate behaviour. Secondly reality anxiety which is a fear of external events often culminating in phobias, we are able to reduce such anxiety by avoiding the threatening object or situation. Thirdly is moral anxiety from a fear of violating our own moral principles and values that have been set down by our Super Ego. Neurosis also figured heavily in Freud’s psycho-analytical theory. He proposed that neurosis occurs when the Ego is unable to deal with desires that produce feelings of guilt and a sense of wrong. Through repression these thoughts manifest themselves through symptoms that have no physical dysfunction. The mental illness acts as a replacement for the guilt ridden desires of the Id allowing the Ego to avoid the conflict between itself and the Id. Such symptoms however are worse than the conflict they set out to hide, not only stopping the individual from being accepting of their repressed desires but  also causing them to become socially incapable of enjoying a happy and healthy life. He also believed that neurosis can be triggered by a traumatic childhood event that the individual is unable to handle. Often such experiences give rise to feelings of guilt that we seek to repress through use of various displacement mechanisms. Sometimes these repressed memories make their way back into our conscious minds in a different form producing a great amount of anxiety in turn triggering psychological disorders that seek to block out the real cause. Psychoanalytical therapy has proved productive in being able to help a client uncover unconscious defence mechanisms and help them find better ways of dealing with their anxiety or removing it all together. Psycho-analysis opened up a new view regarding the treatment of mental illness, suggesting that psychological distress could be reduced through talking about their problems with a therapist. The work of Freud was responsible for bringing about a greater understanding of behaviour that was unusual and differences were no longer automatically equated as unacceptable, with understanding comes greater tolerance. He radically changed the view of sexuality making it an acceptable topic of conversation and a natural part of a healthy, happy life. The approach is also credited with highlighting the importance of childhood and our unconscious mind. Despite the influential effect of his theories Freud is open to numerous criticisms. Many psychologists have adopted his ideas but there has been a great deal of modernisation on his original views. Carl Jung who was a pupil of Freud’s even disagreed with certain aspects of his theories; in particular Freud’s reliance on sex as the answer to many problems. Jung went on to develop his own theories known as Analytical Psychology. Erich Fromm rejected Freud’s view that the drives of the human being are solely biological, believing instead that it was down to our freedom of choice and ability to choose our own destiny. He believed any conflict arose as a result of the fear or uncertainty which that freedom entailed. Feminists are particularly critical of the work of Freud due to the sexist nature of many of his ideas. Neo-Freudian Karen Horney proposed that instead of penis envy girls in fact developed power envy and that in their inability to bear  children men develop womb and vagina envy. Scientifically the validity of Freud’s theory of psycho-sexual development is brought in to question due to his perceived personal fixation on human sexuality and the phallic stage of development proved controversial for being based upon clinical observations of the Oedipus complex. Many were critical of the fact that a lot of Freud’s ideas were based on case studies or clinical observations rather than empirical, scientific research. Contemporary criticism questions the universality of Freud’s theory of personality and psycho-sexual development. Anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski studied the matriarchal society of the Trobriand where young boys are punished by their maternal uncles not their fathers and thus suggested that in this case power is the source of Oedipal conflict not sexual jealousy. Contemporary research has also confirmed that although personality traits corresponding to the oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital stages are observable they are not necessarily fixed stages of childhood or indeed adult personality traits that were derived from childhood. While there is no denying that Freud is of great historical significance and he developed many ground breaking theories and ideas some of which still hold relevance today although many over time have been discredited. It must then be said that Freud’s theory of psychosexual development may in some cases offer us a limited understanding of a client’s issue it would not be ethical practice to rely entirely on this theory when working with a client. Due to its lack of credibility in many areas, Freud’s theory cannot be implemented as a full explanation or means with which to begin the process of understanding and healing. Bibliography Frankland, A. and Sanders, P. 1995. Next steps in counselling. Manchester: PCCS Books. pp.70-76 Hough, M. 2006. Counselling Skills and Theory. 2nd ed. London: Hodder Arnold, pp. 59-86. Malinowski, B. 1927. Sex and repression in savage society. [e-book] London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. http://openlibrary.org/books/OL17967917M/Sex_and_repression_in_savage_society [Accessed: 1st July 2013]. Cherry, K. n.d.. Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development. [online] Available at: http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev.htm [Accessed: 19 Jun 2013]. Copperwiki.org. 1950. Human Centred Psychotherapy – CopperWiki. [online] Available at: http://www.copperwiki.org/index.php?title=Human_Centred_Psychotherapy [Accessed: 01 Jul 2013] En.wikipedia.org. 2013. Psychosexual development – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [online] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychosexual_development [Accessed: 01 Jul 2013]. http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/dl/free/0072969806/286620/fei69806_ch02

Cumberland Case Essay

1. What’s your price for the curled metal pads? Why? (3) 2. How attractive an opportunity is this for CMI? (7) 3. How are you going to market these pads? Describe your marketing plan. (8) 4. What are you going to say to the Colerick Foundation?Exhibit 1: CMI was one of the largest manufacturers of curled metal products in US with an 80% market share. CMI’s sales were dipping and management was not optimistic of maintaining the current market share in the long run. Cumberland had a history of using curled metal technology to develop innovative metal products like slip-seal to meet the demanding specifications. Existing cushion pads in the market seem to be meeting the need adequately and hence no specific attention was being paid to develop new and high performing products. The results of tests of the use of new metal pad had been excellent, exhibiting nearly 33% gain in efficiency and 20 times more life as compared to asbestos pads. Because of the lack of an existing market and sales and distribution channels, company faced a herculean task of convincing the channels that there indeed was a market for the new pad. Existing pads in the market came in standard diameters but CMI’s manufacturing process provided the flexibi lity to develop pads in any diameter using the same band of curled metal. Because of the lack of statistics on cushion pad usage, CMI did not have a clear idea of the sales mix of the various product sizes. Contractors and Subject matter Experts(Prof. R. Stephan McCormack of Pennsylvania A&M university ) had expressed great enthusiasm about the new pad. At this stage of prior to product launch and manufacturing, CMI seem to be struggling to find a responsible contractor to use the product and monitor its performance | Opportunities| Threats|No direct competition for Cumberland existed because of the lack of interest of†¦ foot driven. This alternative is in line with the price of current used pads in the test scenario, hence competitive. The advantage of this method is it fulfills the company objective of 50% markup, is easy to calculate, and competes well with other pads. Furthermore, proceeding years will realize a greater than 50% margin since the $150,000 equipment investment will be eliminated. This approach would work best for a strategy of extensive market penetration. Since the price of the pads are the same current used, CMI needs only to convince consumers of the  effici ency and safety advantages to convert them to the new pads. However, this pricing method does not consider the possibility of premium pricing due to efficiency cost savings or value added to the customer by using the CMI pads. Case PresentationCurled Metal Inc. (CMI) faced a pricing and channel marketing decision for metal pile cushions utilized during pile driving. CMI’s approach to metal pads has significant efficiency advantages over currently used pads available in the market. However, CMI has to take into account several barriers to entry into this market. The primary barrier is that most companies viewed role of pads as a necessary accessory or tangent item instead of viewing them as a potentially value adding or cost reducing part of pile driving. In order to penetrate the market, CMI has to alter the point of view of pile driving pads for the opinion leaders, engineering firms, and contractors involved in the decision process. There is several stakeholders to consider, first CMI that need a new successful product to the continued success of the company. The decisions regarding pile cushions could greatly increase the company’s revenues and profits. There are also several secondary sta keholders in the pile driving industry. Secondary stakeholders include pile hammer manufacturers, architectural consulting engineers, soil consultants, pile hammer distributing/renting companies,†¦Promotion strategyPatent? Curled Metal’s strategic and marketing objectivesThere is a need to increase the industry’s awareness for the new pad and to recognize it as a â€Å"necessity† for projects.This can be achieved by soliciting different influencing parties. Different parties have established ties with their targeted clients. The parties can easily influence clients.Pile hammer manufacturers, architectural/ Consulting engineers play a role in influencing decisions of contractors by providing recommendations. Curled Metal should maintain a good relationship with these parties and carry out firm visits to introduce the product to them.For independent pile-driving contractors, professional staff from Curled Metal can be assigned to these contractors to help with management at the initial period.Less resource should be allocated on pile hammer distributing and sophisticated engineering/ construction contractors as it may be difficult to change their mindsets.This can also be achieved th rough promotion. Curled metal can continue to make use of the influence of respected Professor Stephen McCormack of Pennsylvania A&M University. Since sophisticated  firms of the industry are familiar with his research, Curl Metal should value Professor McCormack’s influence. Curl Metal should publish the test results of the new pads to the industry when it is finalized.Curled Metal can make use of existing publication on pile-driving jobs, such as Oklahoma Contractor. Curled Metal can have its advertisement featured on the publication to introduce the advantages of the new pads.Curled Metal can also sponsor professional-level seminars and conference for contractors, designers and equipment developers to exchange ideas. Curl Metal can make us of the chance where different parties gather together and promote the new pads to them. Professors can be invited to hold talks and explain how the new pads can help save resources and time. Answered questions: What should a customer be willing to pay for one of Curled Metal Incorporated’s new cushion pads? What factors are relevant in calculating willingness to pay in this situation? Prepare a specific monetary estimate of customer value in this situation. What price should Curled Metal Inc. set for one of its new cushion pads? Why? Please focus on an 11.5-inch cushion pad. On page 1 of the case, Curled Metal Inc.’s vice president Joseph Fernandez says, â€Å"The way we price this could have a significant impact on everything else we do.† An integrated strategic option specifies the basic type of advantage a company will pursue (e.g., differentiation? low cost? other?), relevant decisions about customer and product scope, and key choices throughout the company’s value chain. Please prepare an integrated strategic option for CMI – an option that specifies your price but also specifies the many other choices facing CMI in formulating a strategy for its new cushion pads (e.g., in marketing, sales, distribution, production, finance, and other functions). Case analysis for Curled Metal Inc.1. What should a customer be willing to pay for one of Curled Metal Incorporated’s new cushion pads? What factors are relevant in calculating willingness to pay in this situation? Please prepare a specific monetary estimate of customer value in this situation. When calculating the value of CMI’s curled metal pads to the customers one has to take a variety of factors into account. These are the total costs per hour of pile driving, the saved costs for driving as well as the savings in  changing time. By calculating the total amount of money saved when applying the new pads, one can calculate the â€Å"real value† of the product. One „real hour’sâ€Å" worth of pile driving is calculated as follows: One real hour has a total cost of $714. We will use this number for further calculations. Below I have calculated the total costs for driving time, replacing pads for both the Kendrick Foundation Company and Corey construction†¦ Cumberland Metals: Case Study Analysis. 1/9Cumberland Metals faced a both a pricing and channel marketing decision for metal pile cushions utilized during pile driving. Cumberland’s approach to pile cushions had significant efficiency advantages over other asbestos methods that were currently available in the 1979 market. However, Cumberland faced several barriers to entry into the pile cushion market. The primary barrier was that most companies viewed role of cushions as a necessary accessory or tangent item instead of viewing cushions as a potentially value adding or cost reducing part of pile driving. In order to penetrate the market, Cumberland would have to alter the lackadaisical view of pile driving cushion pads for the opinion leaders, eng ineering firms, and contractors involved in the decision process.Key IssuesCumberland needs to consider several marketing decisions. First, they must determine a method for pricing and ultimately a price for the new metal pads. Second, Cumberla nd must decide which channels to market the pads based on the selected pricing strategy. Third, Cumberland must determine how much to invest in manufacturing equipment by estimating market penetration and considering the costs and benefits of investing in pad producing equipment.AnalysisCumberland’s new metal pile driving pads provided several benefits over the current asbestos cushions. Several Pad features and pricing decisions will be discussed and analyzed in this section. First, the safety and heat properties of the cushions will be analyzed and compared to current asbestos pads. Second, efficiency characteristics will be analyzed and compared with current asbestos pads. Third, several methods of calculating the best price in order to match the price to the value added for the customer will be discussed. Finally, an analysis of the different marketing channels a nd marketing strategy will be presented. Safety Presentation MarketingCumberland Metal Industries ( CMI cushion pads) The  Problem Definition: For Cumberland Metal Industries the curled metal cushion pads represent a great breakthrough. These pads offer the company the opportunity to diversify, and double their sales, given a proper market introduction. Cumberland Industries faces the challenge to Place in the market (promote/advertise) and price their latest innovation, the curled metal cushion pads in a way that it reveals the great advantages that the product provides.In order to do that, the company needs to pay attention to certain factors that can influence the success of the product on the market. These factors are: promotion and advertising, and the pricing of the metal pads on the market.Marketing Strategy: A sensible thing for the company to do is to use the niche strategy in order to place the product on the market. A Niche strategy will focus on a specific area of a service or a product. The advantage of using niche strategy is that it can focus on a specific niche that provides either a large volume of business or small volume with lucrative profit margins. The whole idea behind the niche strategy is that it targets those people who are interested in the type of product offered. In our case, by placing the CMI metal cushion pads as a niche, Cumberland Metal Industries has the potential of becoming a dominant player on the market.The next step is promoting and advertising the product as such (niche/innovative etc.). What Cumberland Industries should do, is create a brand. They have a truly innovative product that has the potential of becoming a huge success. Before the CMI metal pads, the only pads available were the asbestos pads. Those, however, could be found at diverse retailers, and were not properly marketed. Moreover, it is well known, and proven that the asbestos pads are a hazard to health and also there are some government regulations that prohibit the use of asbestos. Cumberland Metal Industries – Pricing Strategy Executive SummaryCumberland Metal Industries (CMI), a company specialized in making of curled metal products, has develop a new product, metal cushion pad with health safety and long durability, to help contractors drive piles faster. Based on the successful tests, CMI now wants to launch this new product to the market. The main challenge CMI is facing is to price its new pads. Since the pad is totally new in the market, CMI should use perceived  value pricing method and apply marketing mix programs comprised of advertising, education, and distribution channels to launch this product as well as develop it to get full market share in the future.Perceived Value Pricing – strategy for future successCMI should set the objective of this new business to be the monopoly and to maximize profits. However, the prerequisite for this objective is to get a patent to prevent this product from being copied and imitated. As long as CMI did not get patent for this product, CMI should not sel l it as it would invite the entry of competitors because this cushion pad is not a high technology product and easy to be copied.

Airline Economics Essay

The purpose of this note is to provide background to the study of the airline industry by briefly discussing four important economic aspects of the industry: (1) the nature and measurement of airline costs; (2) economies of scope and hub-and-spoke networks; (3) the relationship between yields and market characteristics; and (4) the S-curve effect. The Appendix to this note contains a glossary of key terms used throughout the discussion. Airline Costs Airline costs fall into three broad categories: flight sensitive costs which vary with the number of flights the airline offers. These include the costs associated with crews, aircraft servicing, and fuel. Once the airline sets its schedule, these costs are fixed. traffic-sensitive costs which vary with the number of passengers. These include the costs associated with items such as ticketing agents and food. Airlines plan their expenditures on these items in anticipation of the level of traffic, but in the short run, these costs are also fixed. fixed overhead costs which include general and administrative expenses, costs associated with marketing and advertising, and interest expenses. The largest category of costs is flight-sensitive. An important point about an airline’s cost structure, and a key to understanding the nature of competition in the industry, is that once an airline has set its schedule, nearly all of its costs are fixed and thus cannot be avoided. Because it is better to generate cash flow to cover some fixed costs, as opposed to none at all, an airline will be willing to fly passengers at prices far below its average total cost. This implies that the incidence of price wars during periods of low demand is likely to be greater in this industry than in most. There are two alternative measures of an airline’s average (or, equivalently, unit) costs: cost per available seat mile (ASM) cost per revenue passenger mile (RPM) Cost per ASM is an airline’s operating costs divided by the total number of seat-miles it flies. (An available seat mile is one seat flown one mile.) It is essentially the cost per unit of capacity. Cost per RPM is the airline’s operating costs divided by the number of revenue-passenger miles it flies. (A revenue passenger mile is one passenger flown one mile.) It is essentially the cost per unit of actual output. These two measures are related by the formula: Cost per RPM = cost per ASM ( load factor where load factor is the fraction of seats an airline fills on its flights. In the end, it is cost per RPM that an airline must worry about, for it must cover its cost per RPM to make a profit. Airlines differ greatly in both their costs per ASM and costs per RPM. For example, in 1992 Southwest had a cost per ASM of 7.00 cents, while USAir had a cost per ASM of 10.90 cents. Similarly, Delta had a cost per RPM of 15.33 cents while American had a cost per RPM of 13.81. Differences across airlines in cost per ASM reflect differences in: 1) average length of flights (cost per ASM declines with distance). 2) fleet composition (cost per ASM is smaller with bigger planes). 3) input prices, especially wage rates. 4) input productivity, especially labor. 5) overall operating efficiency. Differences across airlines in cost per RPM reflect differences in cost per ASM plus differences in load factor. Two airlines might have very similar costs per ASM, but quite different costs per RPM because of differences in load factor. For example, in 1992 USAir and United’s cost per ASM differed by less than 2 cents (USAir 10.90, United 9.30), but their costs per RPM differed by nearly 5 cents (USAir 18.54, United 13.80) because of USAir’s lower overall load factor (USAir .59, United .67) Economies of Scope and Hub-and-Spoke Networks Economies of scope play an important role in shaping the structure of the U.S. airline industry. The source of economies of scope in the airline industry is the hub-and-spoke network. In hub-and-spoke network, an airline flies passengers from a set of â€Å"spoke† cities through a central â€Å"hub,† where passengers then change planes and fly from the hub to their outbound destinations. Thus, a passenger traveling from, say, Omaha to Louisville on American Airlines would board an American flight from Omaha to Chicago, change planes, and then fly from Chicago to Louisville. In general, economies of scope occur when a multiproduct firm can produce given quantities of products at a lower total cost than the total cost of producing these same quantities in separate firms. If â€Å"quantity† can be aggregated into a common measure, this definition is equivalent to saying that a firm producing many products will have a lower average cost than a firm producing just a few products. In the airline industry, it makes economic sense to think about individual origin-destination pairs (e.g., St. Louis to New Orleans, St. Louis to Houston, etc.) as distinct products. Viewed in this way, economies of scope would exist if an airline’s cost per RPM is lower the more origin-destination pairs its serves. To understand how hub-and-spoke networks give rise to economies of scope, it is first necessary to explain economies of density. Economies of density are essentially economies of scale along a given route, i.e., reductions in average cost as traffic volume on the route increases. Economies of density occur because of two factors: (1) spreading flight sensitive fixed costs and (2) economies of aircraft size. As an airline’s traffic volume  increases, it can fill a larger fraction of seats on a given type of aircraft and thus increase its load factor. The airline’s total costs increase only slightly as it carries more passengers because traffic-sensitive costs are small in relation to flight-sensitive fixed costs. As a result, the airline’s cost per RPM falls as flight-sensitive fixed costs are spread over a larger traffic volume. As traffic volume on the route gets even larger, it becomes worthwhile to substitute larger aircraft (e.g., 300 seat Boeing 767s) for smaller aircraft (e.g., 150 seat Boeing 737s). A key aspect of this substitution is that the 300 seat aircraft flown a given distance at a given load factor is less than twice as costly as the 150 seat aircraft flown the same distance at the same load factor. The reason is that doubling the number of seats and passengers on a plane does not require doubling the number of pilots or flight attendants or the amount of fuel. Economies of scope emerge from the interplay of economies of density and the properties of a hub-and-spoke network. To see how, consider an origin-destination pair – say, Indianapolis to Chicago – with a modest amount of traffic. An airline serving only this route would use small planes, and even then, would probably operate with a low load factor. But now consider an airline serving a hub-and-spoke network, with the hub at Chicago. If this airline offered flights between Indianapolis and Chicago, it would not only draw passengers who want to travel from Indianapolis to Chicago, but it would also draw passengers from traveling from Indianapolis to all other points accessible from Chicago in the network (e.g., Los Angeles or San Francisco). An airline that includes the Indianapolis-Chicago route as part of a larger hub-and-spoke network can operate larger aircraft at higher load factors than an airline serving only Indianapolis-Chicago. As a result, it can benefit from economies of density to achieve a lower cost per RPM along the Indianapolis-Chicago route. In addition, the traffic between Indianapolis and the other spoke cities that will fly through Chicago will increase load factors and lower costs per RPM on all of the spoke routes in the network. The overall effect: an airline that serves Indianapolis-Chicago as part of a hub-and-spoke network will have lower costs per RPM than an airline that only serves  Indianapolis-Chicago. This is precisely what is meant by economies of scope. Relation Between Airline Yields and Market Characteristics An airline’s yield is the amount of revenue it collects per revenue passenger mile. It is essentially a measure of the average airline fares, adjusting for differences in distances between different origins and destinations. Airline yields are strongly affected by the characteristics of the particular origin-destination market being served. In particular, there are two important relationships: Shorter distance markets (e.g., New York-Pittsburgh) tend to have higher yields than longer distance markets (e.g., New York-Denver). Controlling for differences in the number of competitors, flights between smaller markets tend to have higher yields than flights between larger markets. The reasons for relationship 1) are summarized in Figure 1. shorter distance higher cost per RPMlower load factor higher cost per RPM higher yield Figure 1 Cost per ASM generally falls as distance increases. This is because, say, doubling trip mileage does not require doubling key inputs such as fuel or labor. Thus, shorter flights have higher cost per ASM than longer flights, and airlines must achieve higher yields to cover these higher costs. In addition, shorter distance flights generally have lower load factors than longer distance flights, which implies a higher cost per RPM for shorter distance flights, again requiring higher yields. Why are load factors lower for shorter flights? The reasons has to do with the greater substitution  possibilities that consumers have in short-distance markets (e.g., car of train travel are more viable options). In short –distance markets, we would therefore expect that some fraction of time-sensitive travelers (e.g., vacationers) would travel on these alternative modes, so short distance flights would have a higher proportion of time-sensitive travelers (e.g., business persons) than longer distance flights. Competitive pressures thus force airlines to offer more frequent flight schedules in short-distance markets, which leads to lower load factors. The reason for relationship 2) has to do with the economies of density discussed earlier. Smaller markets will have lower traffic volumes, and airlines will generally operate smaller aircraft at lower load factors, increasing costs per RPM and yields. The S-Curve Effect The S-curve effect refers to a phenomenon whereby a dominant carrier’s market share (share of RPM) in a particular origin-destination market tends to be greater than the carrier’s share of capacity (share of ASM). Thus, for example, if United offers 70% of the seats flown between Denver and San Francisco, and Continental flies the remaining 30%, then the S-curve effect says that United’s share of the actual traffic in this market will be greater than 70% and Continental’s will be less than 30%. This translates into an S-shaped relationship between â€Å"share of capacity† and â€Å"market share,† as shown in Figure 2. The S-curve effects stems from two sources. First, an airline with a greater share of capacity in a market is likely to have greater visibility in that market, so passengers are likely to contact it first. Second, an airline with a greater capacity share is likely to have more frequent – and thus more convenient – departures. This, too, works to boost its share of the actual traffic. The S-curve phenomenon makes capacity an important competitive weapon in the rivalry among airlines. An airline with the financial resources to purchase  aircraft and airport gates to achieve a dominant capacity share on key routes is likely to win the fight for market share. This suggests that, in general, it will be very difficult for a small carrier to challenge a dominant carrier at a hub airport, unless the small carrier can achieve significant cost advantages unrelated to scale. The history of competition in the post-deregulation airline industry seems to bear this out.